MAKALAH - INTRINSIC MOTIVATION IN THE CLASSROOM

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION IN THE CLASSROOM

OBJECTIVES after reading this chapter, you will be able to

• Recognize differences among behavioral,cognitiveand constructivist perspective on motivation.

• identify the distinguishing characteristics of intrinsic motivation;especially in contrast to extrinsic motivation.

• Understand the role that motivation plays in all learning not just in language learning.

• applyprinciples ofmotivation to the second language classroom.

For every complicated problem there is an answer that is short,

simple, andwrong. -H.L.Mencken.

One  of the more complicated problems of second language learning and teaching has been to define and apply the construct of motivation in the classroom. On the one hand, it is an easy catch word that gives teachers a simpie answer to the mysteries of language learning. "Motivation is the difference, "I have heard people say "between success and failure. If they're motivated, they'il learn, and if not, they won't. That simplification may hold some of the time. 

Why not all the time? Just what is motivation? Can it be acquired, or is  It just "there"? Can it be taught? Where does it come from? Are there different kinds of motivation? If you don't address question like these carefully, you run the risk of passing off motivation as one of H. L. Mencken's short, simple answers to learner success when it is neither short nor simple. Ironically, motivationis not the "wrong" answer to explaining learner success, but it is "right" only when its full complexity is recognized and applied appropriately in the language classroom.

DEFINING MOTIVATION

Motivationis the extent to which you make choices about 

a) goals to pursue and

b) the effort you will devote to that pursuit.

You can interpret this definition in varying ways, depending on the

 Theory of human behavior you adopt. Let's look at theories of motivation in terms of three different view points. One of these perspectives is a traditional view of motivation that accounts for human behavior through a behavioral paradigm  that stresses the importance of rewards and reinforcement. Another cluster of perspectives contains a number of cognitive psychological theories that explain motivation through deeper,less observable phenomena. A third way of looking at motivation involves a constructivist view that emphasizes social context and personal choices.These three traditions are described below.

1. A behavioral definition 

A behavioral psychologist like Skinner or Watson would stress the role of rewards (and perhaps punishments) in motivating behavior. In Skinner's operant conditioning model, for example, human beings, like other living organisms, will pursue a goal because they perceive a reward for doing so. This reward serves to reinforce behavior: to cause it to persist. This tradition gave us what I might facetiously refer to as the "M&M theory" of behavior, derived from the now seldom practiced administration of M&M candies to children for manifesting desired behavior.

A behaviorist would define motivation as the anticipation of reinforcement. Reinforcement theory is a powerful concept for the classroom. Learners, like the proverbial horse running after the carot, pursue goals in order to receive externally administered rewards: praise, gold stars, grades, certificates, diplomas, scholarships, careers, financial independence,and ultimately, happiness.

2. Cognitive definitions

A number of cognitive psychological view points offer quite a different perspective on motivation. While rewards are very much apart of the whole picture,the difference lies in the sources of motivation and in the power of self-reward. Three different theories illustrate this side of motivation.

A. Drive theory.Those who see human drives as fundamental to human behavior claim that motivation stems from basic innate drives. David Ausubel (1968) elaborated on six different drives:

 Exploration

 manipulation.

 Activity

 stimulation

 knowledge.

 Ego enhancement

All of these drives act not so much as reinforcers, as in behavioristic theory, but as innate predispositions, compellingus, as it were, to probe the unknown; to control our environment; to be physically active; to be receptive to mental, emotional, or physical stimulation; to yearn for answers to questions; and to build our own self-esteem. It takes little imagination to see how motivation in the classroom is the fulfillment of theseunderlyingdrives.

B. Hierarchy of needs theory. One of the most widely cited theories of motivation comes from Abraham Maslow(1970), who, in the Spirit of drive theory, elaborated further to describe a system of needs within each human being that propel us to higher and higher atainment.

Maslow's theory tells us that what might be in appropriately viewed as rather ordinary classroom routines may in fact be important precursors to motivation for higher atainment.For an activity in the classroom to be considered motivating then,it need not be out standingly striking, innovative, or in spirational. Even familiar classroom procedures(takingroll, checking homework,small talk at the beginning of class, etc.), if they fulfill lower order needs, can pave the way to meeting higher-order needs.

C. Self-control theory. Certain cognitive psychologists (forinstance, Hunt, 1971) focus on the importance of people deciding for them selves what to think or feel or do. We define our selves by making our own decisions, rather than by simply reacting to others. Motivation is highest when one can make one's own choices,whether they are in short-term or long-term contexts.

3. A constructivist definition

A constructivist view of motivation places even further emphasis on social context as well as individual personal choices (Wiliams & Burden, 1997, p.120). Motivation, in a constructivist view, is derived as much from our interactions with others as it is from one's self determination. Motivation is something that can, like self esteem, be global, situational, or task oriented. Learning a foreign language requires some of all three levels of motivation.

INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION 

In this succession of research studies, distinction has been made between integrative and instrumental orientations (see PLIT, Chapter6). While the1972 study claimed that an integrative orientation (desire to learn a language stemming from a positive affect toward a community of its speakers)was more strongly linked to success in learning a second language than an instruniental orientation (desire to learn a language in order to attain certain career, educational, or financial goals), later studies showed that both orientations could be associated with success.

Remember two important points. First, there search by Gardnerand his colleagues centered on a dichotomy of orientation, not motivation. Orientation means a context or purpose for learning; motivation refers to the intensity of one's impetus to learn. An integrative orientation simply  means the learner is pursuing a second language for a social or cultural purpose or both, and within that purpose, a learner could be driven by a high level of motivation or low level.

 Now, let's move to specifying further what the intrinsic /integrative continuum implies. Edward Deci (1975,p.23) defined intrinsic motivation this way:

Intrinsically motivated activities are ones for which there is no apparent reward except the activity it self. People seem  to engage in the activities for their own sake and not because they lead to an extrinsic reward. Intrinsically motivated behaviors are aimed at bringing about certain internally rewarding consequences, namely, feelings of competence and self-determination.

Extrinsically  motivated  behaviors, on the other hand, are carried out in anticipation of are ward from out side and beyond the self. Typical extrinsic rewards are money, prizes, grades, and even certain types of positive feedback. Behaviors initiated solely to avoid punishment are also extrinsically motivated, even though numerous intrinsic benefits can ultimately accrue to those who, instead, view punishment avoidance as a challenge that can build their sense of competence and self-determination.

Abraham Maslow(1970)claimed that intrinsic motivation is clearly superior to extrinsic. According to his hierarchy of needs, we are ultimately motivated to achieve "self actualization once the basic physical, safety, and community needs are met. No matter what extrinsic rewards are presentor absent, we will strive for self esteem and fulfillment. 

Jerome Bruner (1962), praising the "autonomy of self-reward," claimed that one of the most effective ways to help both children and adults to think and learn is to freet hem from the control of rewards and punishments. One of the principal weaknesses of extrinsically driven behavior is its addictive nature.

Two examples (Khon,1990) illustrate:

1) Subjects were asked to solve an intrinsicalyfascinating complex puzzle with no stated reward. Half way through the process, the experimenter informed the subjects that there would be a monetary reward for solving the puzzle. From that point on ward, intrinsic motivation (as measured by speed and correct steps to ward a solution) waned.

2) Teenage girls were given the task of teaching some games to younger children.One group of"teachers" was simply given the teaching task; the others were told that they would receive a reward (a free ticket to the movies) for successfully completing the task. Results: The first group did their task faster, with more success, and reported greater pleasure in doing so than the second group !

It is interesting that the research shows that one type of extrinsic reward can indeed have an effect to on intrinsic motivation: the positive feedback that learners perceive as a boost to their feelings of competence and self-determination. 

Intrinsic motivation is of course not the only determiner of success for a language learner. Sometimes, no matter something or how hard how much you want to accomplish you try, you may not succeed for a host of other reasons. But if the learners in your classroom are  given an opportunity to "do" language for their own personal reasons of achieving competence and autonomy, those learners will have a better chance of success than if they become dependent on external rewards for their motivation.

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION IN EDUCATION 

Educators like Maria Montessori, Rudolf Steiner, Paolo Freire, A. S. Neill, and Carl Rogers have all provided exemplary models of intrinsically motivated education. Traditionally, elementary and secondary schools are fraught with extrinsically motivated behavior. 

The consequence of such extrinsic motivators is that schools all too often teach students to play the "game of pleasing teachers and authorities rather than developing an internalized thirst for knowledge and experience. The and praises for being a "good child" builds agratification. Competition against classmates (who might other wise be allies or partners in learning) ensues. If a communal bond is created, it runs the risk of being motivated by the need to band together against teachers and authorities.Over the  long haul, such dependency focuses students too exclusively on the material or monetary rewards of an  education rather than instilling an appreciation for creativity and satisfying some of the more basic drives for knowledge and exploration. Ultimately, the product of this system is a student who has been taught to fear failure above all and therefore to refrain from potentially rewarding risk-taking or innovative bchavior.

From extrinsic to intrinsic motivation in educational institutions

Extrinsic Pressures Intrinsic Innovtions Motivational Results

SCHOOL CURRICULUM Learner-centered personal goal-setting individualization Self-esteem 

Self-actualization

Decide for self 

PARENTAL EXPECTATIONS Family solidarity negotiated agreements Love, intimacy acceplance, respect for wisdom

SOCIETY’S EXPECTATION (conformity) Security of comfortable routines task-based teaching Community, belonging identity, harmony security

TEST & EXAMS Peer evaluation self-diagnosis level-check exercises Experience self-knowledge

IMMEDIATE GRATIFICATION (“M&Ms”) Set long –term goals focus on big picture  Self-actualization

MAKE MONEY Content-based teaching vocational education workplace ESL, ESP Cooperation harmony

COMPETITION Cooperative learning group work the class is a team Community strength, status security

NEVER FAILI Risk-taking, innovation, creativity Learn from mistakes nobody’s perfect “c’est la vie”

A curriculum that comes from "the administration" can be modifiedTo some extent to include student-centered learning and teaching,To allow students to set some-not all, perhaps-of their own learning goals, and to individualize lessons and activities as much as

possible. The result: higher student self esteem, greater chances forself actualization, more deciding for oneself.

The result:an  appreciation of love, intimacy, and respect for the wisdom of age. In turn, society's expectations may through a process of education and counseling, be seen as a means for providing comfortable routines (time schedules, customs, mores). Class discussions can focus on a critical evaluation of society so that students aren't forced to accept some specific way of thinking or acting, but are coaxed into examining both sides of the issue. The result is a sense of belonging, of the value of the wider community, of harmony. 

Immediate gratification, material  rewards, competition, and fear of fallure) can also be redirected through.

• Emphasizing the "big" picture- larger perspectives

• Letting students set long-term goals 

• allowing sufficient time for learning

• cooperative learning activities.

• groupwork.

• Viewing the class as a team

• content-centered teaching .

• English for specific(vocational/professional purposes .

• English in the work place

• Allowing risk-taking behavior.

• Rewarding innovation and creativity

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION IN THE SECOND LANGUAGE CLASSROOM

Turningt othe role of intrinsic motivation in second language classrooms in particular, consider these activities that capitalize on the intrinsic by appealing to learners' self- determination and autonomy:

 Teaching writing as a thinking process in which learners develop their own ideas freely and openly.

 Showing learners strategies of reading that enable them to bring their own information to the written word

 Language experience approaches in which students create their Own reading material for others in the class to read 

 Oral fluency exercises in which learners talk about what interests them and not about a teacher assigned topic

 listening to an academic lecture in one's own fiel do of study for specific information that will fill a gap for the learner 

 communicative language teaching,in which

language is taught to enable learners to accomplish certain specific functions 

 grammatical explanations, if learners see in such explanations a potential for increasing their autonomy in a second language.

Throughout the rest of this book, you will be reminded of the importance of the Intrinsic Motivation Principle in achieving your goals as a teacher. Think of your self not so much as a teacher who mustconstantly "deliver information to your students, bu tmore as a facilitator of learning whose job is to set the stage for learning, to Start the wheel sturning in side the heads of your students, to turn them on to their own abilities, and to help channel those abilities in fruitful directions. 

Zoltàn Dörnyei(2001)offers an insightful set of strategies for creating what he calls "basic motivational conditions (p.31) in the classroom,based on a survey of Hungarian foreign language teachers (Dörnyei & Csizér, 1998). All eight strategies focus on what the teacher can do to start the process of creating intrinsic motivation.

1) Demonstrate and talk about your own enthusiasm for the course material, and how it affects your personally.

2) Take the students' learning very seriously

3) Develop a personal relationship with your students.

4) Developa collaborative relationship with the students' parents. 

5) Createa pleasant and supportive atmosphere in the classroom. 

6) Promote  the development of group cohesiveness 

7) Formulate group norms explicitly, and have them discussed and accepted  by the learners.

8) Have the group norms consistently observed.

These eight guidelines are followed, in Doryanyei’s (2001) book, by 27 other strategies for generating initial motivation, maintaining and prortecting motivation, and encouranging dynamics.

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